U.S. Advanced Manufacturing Action Plan

What are the guidelines that support this research project?

This summary is based on Helwig and Goldman (2024), and aims to improve my writing skills, business analysis, and process improvement in the U.S. market.

The texts may contain typos, imcomplete thoughts, and will be subject to ongoing revision and development. In addition to the main document, I also used reference documents, books, videos and articles to complement this work.

Advanced Manufacturing

  • Advanced manufacturing refers to the use of innovative technology, process and methods like intelligent robotics, additive manufacturing, digital twins, artificial intelligence, and lean principles to accelerate the design and production of physical goods. As a result, it is possible to achieve scale and possibilities that was previously impossible like cost reduction, and value-added products in shorter cycles.

  • Advanced manufacturing combines human capital with automation, robotics, AI(e.g, machine learning, large language models, computer vision, autonomous agents), IoT, and 3D printing to drive innovation and efficiency.

Advanced Manufacturing

Impacts

Adcanced manufacturing drives economic stability, competitiveness, and growth, while maintaining fundamental skills, and mitigating market risks. Key impacts also include:

  • Productivity: Streamline production processes by automation, reducing cycle times and labor cost.
  • Costs: By optimizing processes and reducing waste.
  • Supply Chain: IoT and data analytics can improve visibility and efficiency, reducing lead times and inventory costs.
  • Jobs and skill requirements: New opportunities in fields like robotics programming, data analysis, and maintenance of advanced machinery.
  • Quality: High precision, uniformity and consistency in production.
  • Customization and Flexibility: 3D printing enable on-demand manufacturing of highly customizable products without retooling.
  • Environmental Impact: By reducing material waste, energy consumption, and gas emissions.

The Past

Explore the past experiences estimulate our ability of mental time travel that essential for survival and adaptation, as it helps us predict outcomes, learn from mistakes, and build a sense of identity. Studying the past helps us identify how experiences shape the history and influence memory formation, and learning.

Process Innovation History

  • Shorten the distance: Enhancing the movement of goods to boost trade, industry, agriculture, and communication regionally and across the country. Erie Canal navigable waterway connecting the great lakes to the atlantic ocean completed in 1825 according to DPLA (1821) . The objective was to develop the city of New York, which was a point of communication with the world (e.g. port of trade hub), and opened up the MidWest for settlement and agricultural expansion, impacting the marginal product of labor according to Kaiman, Vandenbroucke, and Wolla (2024). The canal also had profound societal impacts shaping the nation’s economic development in the 19th century:

    • It spurred westward migration, enhance commercial trade between regions.
    • It contributed to the rise of new towns along its route.
    • It facilitated cultural and political unity between the Northest and the expanding western territories.

Erie Canal Map

By 1855 cross-state travel went from six weeks to six days, and freight costs fell from $100 to $5 per ton - Old Newarks’ Main Street Bridge

  • New processes: Making better products, faster and cheaper. The idea of the the Bessemer process was observed and described by a german adventurer Johan Mandelsio in 1669 during a trip to Japan, was patented by Henry Bessemer in 1855 in U.S., and popularized by visionary and entrepreneur Andrew Carnegie in 1870s, which allowed the creation of time machines like bridges, ships, trains, elevators, oil and water pipes, and vertical buldings. This process cuts the manufacturing time of single steel rail from two weeks to fifteen minutes.

  • Knowledge base, science, and data: Improvements of efficiency in the petroleum refining process using scientific methods, commercial partnerships, product standardization and uniformity. These factors enhanced Rockefeller’s natural leadership capabilities.

  • Redefine customer values: Ford, Packard, Home Depot, Nike, Dell Computer, Apple, Netflix and Tesla are just a few examples of how they created new damand by delivering a previously unknown experience to consumers. They built powerful, cohesive business systems that could deliver more of this value than their competitors. They raised customer expectations beyond what their competitors could reach.

  • Low levels of stress and anxiety: There is a potential association between consistently low levels of stress and anxiety (particularly when individuals or organizations remain in their confort zones) and a loss of economic competitiveness. While confort zone is beneficial for maintaining mental and physical health, can also lead to complacency. Moderate stressors encourage problem-solving, innovation, and adoption of new technologies. In the long term a lack of challenge and growth opportunities can lead to decreased motivation and creativity. Stress is a know driver of cognitive adaptation which is crucial for maintaining productivity in dynamic economic environments. This type of behavior and its consequences could be observed in the 1980s in the United States JustARandomChannel (2019) Peter Santenello (2024) FRONTLINE PBS (2024) and currently in 2024 in Germany DW News (2024).

  • Process improvement: Founded in 1906 by Willlian Riley, New Balance is an American footwear and apperal company headquartered in Boston Massachusetts, and one of the world leading manufacturers of high-quality athletic footwear. Known for its “Made in USA” products, the company prides itself on innovation, and performance using lean principles and tools to improve product flow through its plants to retailers and final customers.

    The company began its lean transformation journey in 2003, with guidance from the Toyota Supplier Support Center, New Balance focused in problem-solving and process improvement to create a culture engaging the workforce while boosting performance.

    Lean as management philosophy and set of practices aimed at creating more value for customers with less waste by continuously improving processes and eliminating non-value-adding activities. Deep understand of the value creation process, continuous learning through PDCA cycles, and willingness to challenge assumtions are vital for both workers and managers.

    Problem-Solving Culture Employees identufy and tackle problems, with regular meetings to discuss and implement solutions. Instead of giving orders and say do that do this do this, they say, Okay, here’s the problem, here’s the gap that wr are trying to close, what are you going to do, how can I help? Start with a custmer, go backwards, and say, “Well, now hat are your problems?”.

    Lean Education Associates receive training on lean priciples, including workshops on the basics of lean and waste detection. We have gone from the great manager solves problems to the coach helps people learn how to solve problems.

    Standardized Work Processes are standardized to ensure efficiency and quality.

    Continuous improvement Employees are encouraged to submit improvement ideas, with recognition and rewards for successful implementatios. Lean enterprises need to grow to provide apportunities for their employess and increase value creation. By cosntantly improving and becoming more efficient, theu can remain competitive and secure the jobs of their workforce Murman (2008)

The Present

Focusing on the present helps us undertand how we process information in real time, essential for responding to stimuli quickly and performing daily activities with mindfulness. One of the challenges of staying focused on the present is dealing with digital and physical distractions that are present in abundant quantities.

Challenges

  • Disruptive technologies: New ideas and old ones that could be explored by integration with emerging technology like computational capability, genAI, and atomic computer vision.

  • Demographic shifts around the world: People are getting older and more urban. Below is an example of the demographic transition in some countries where:

    • P pencentage of the population in each group
    • T total population in million in each group
    • AS number of Adults to each Senior (65+ years)
    • AY number of Adults to each Young (0-19 years)

Demographic transition - India

Demographic transition - China

Demographic transition - Indonesia

Demographic transition - USA

Demographic transition - Brazil

Demographic transition - Japan

Demographic transition - Germany
  • Economic activities in emerging markets: Many countries are emerging from poverty, creating opportunities and threats for example new demands, and lower labor costs.

PCA: Principal Component Analysis between countries
  • Climate change: New rules to take care of the environment, improving the capacity to adapt and interact with the environment by creating new products and services.

Electricity consumption by country

  • Erosion fo U.S. industrial capacity: Over the past few decades, the U.S. has experienced a significant decline in its industrial capacity. In 1980, the U.S. manufactured over 40 percent of global high-technology goods, facing 18 percent today. This decline poses a threat to both economic competitiveness and national security.

  • PRC’s Dominance: China has emerged as a potential competitor, cultivation substantial high-tech industrial production capacity and accounting for nearly 30 percent of global manufacturing output. China has strategically prioritized advanced manufacturing as a cornestone of its national rejuvenation strategy.

  • Skills Gap and Workforce Shortages: Outsourcing production has led to a skills gap in the U.S. workforce. This is compounded by a persistent labor shortage in the manufacturing sector, with a projected shortfall of 2.1 million unfilled jobs by 2030. This shortage hinders the adoption and implementation of advanced manufacturing technologies.

  • Small and Medium Manufacturing Adoption Barriers: Small and medium-sized manufacturers contribute the majority of the U.S. manufacturing ecosystem and they face significant obstacles in adopting advanced manufacturing technologies. These include a lacka of access to capital, expertise, and resources for system upgrades and integration.

  • Underinvestment in R&D: The U.S. lag as behind other advanced economies in terms of manufacturing-related R&D spending as a percentage of GDP. This underinvestment hampers innovation and the development of cutting-edge manufacturing processes.

  • Need the key actors working together: Industry, universities and governments

Opportunities

  • Reconceptualize the workforce: The changing nature of manufacturing requires a new approach to workforce development, with a focus on training “technologists” skilled in both engineering and operation of advanced machinery.
  • Leverage existing programs: The United States can build upon succesful programs like the manufacturing USA program and the Manufacturing Externsion Partnetship(MEP) to accelerate workforce development initiatives.
  • Focus on cyber skills: The increasing integration of digital technologies in manufacturing requires a workforce with strong cyber skills.
  • Develop a national talent marketplace: A centralized platform connecting job seekers with advanced manufacturing opportunities can help to adress workforce shortages.
  • Leveraging U.S. Strenths in AI and Software: The U.S. enjoys a significant lead in generative AI, a technology with the potential to transform various facets of advanced manufacturing (e.g.GenAI can creates copilots to helps workers interpret complex factory data and enhance AI-driven design tools that can create product designs from natural language descriptions)
  • Rebuilding Domestic Production Capacity:
  • Public and Private Investments:
  • Collaboration with Allies and Partners:
  • Reshoring and Scaling Up Production:

Industrial Policy for Process Innovation and Recent Development in U.S.

  • CHIPS Act: The U.S.manufacturing share of GDP down 16% since 2012, share of semiconductor production declined from 37% in 1990 to 12% in 2022, and produced no cutting-edge advanced chips. Also, $205B trade deficit in advanced tech products, and the Hamilton Index R. D. Atkinson (2022) showing gaps with comparison to another countries. To reduce theses gaps, U.S. Congress passed Chips Act to incentivize U.S. and allied country firms to build or expand advanced-industry R&D and production sites in the United States. The focus on quantum computing, robotics, 6G equipments, gene edititing, high bandwidth memory chips, chipmaking equipment and software to develop advanced AI systems to improve manufacturing capabilities. Not only invent in U.S. but manufacture in U.S.

  • Science: The basic idea was to identify 10 strategic tecnologies like quantum autonomous systems, AI, biotech, etc. and then give funding to National Science Fundation but for slightly later TRL research more focus on commercialization and partnership with industry.

  • Regional Innovation Hubs: Program that recognized that almost all of the really advanced innovation and job growth was in five methopolitan areas in the U.S. (Silicon Valleym, Boston, Seattle) and that there was this big regional gap in the heartland if you will so this

  • Related Manufacturing: The manufacturing extension partnership at the National Institute of Standards and Technology it’s basically extension services for SMMs(Small and medium-sized manufacturers).

  • IRA(Inflation reduction Act): During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the U.S. has experienced 40-year record-high inflation that has just now started to cool down over the past serveral months. Inflation Reduction Act was sined into law in 2022. Key provisions of the bill are directly aimed at improving the lives of the American middle class and easing financial burdens in a post-pandemic economy. This includes up to $600 per year toward energy-efficient skylights, and up to $500 per year for two doors.

Establish an economic initiative commiting the U.S. to increase its relative level of advanced-industry concentration by 20% poonts in a decade.

According to Atkinson (2024) , Assuming a 3% growth rate in the rest of the economy, doing so could add nearly $2.5T to advanced-industry output over 10 years. It would also reduce U.S. supply chain vulnerability, create millions of good jobs, could adjust imbalances in home prices, reduce trade deficit, waken China’s advanced economy, and shore up dual-use industries critical to U.S. National Defense.

According to Bonvillian (2024) , different approaches were applied such as top down, bottom up, direct production support, demonstration projects, supply chain support, and regional implementation. The impact can be seen in the chart below (Overall U.S. Manufacturing construction), and also in the growth of investment in machinery and equipment(by brekdown of GDP).

The Future

Studying the future to understand decision-making processes, planning, and expectation building, which are crucial for strategic goals. Anticipating future scenarios helps analyze consequences and risks, leading to more effective and safer decisions. The challenges is to control anxiety especially in very optimistic or pessimistic projections.

Process Innovation of the future

  • Shorten the distance Improving the flow of traded goods transforming trade, industry, agriculture, and communication in the region and across the country.

    • Returning supersonic trips more affordable for passengers, profitable for companies, cleaner, quieter, and dramatically more fuel efficient. Speed of sound making the world feel smaller for example Tokio-Seattle in 4.4 hours, New York to London in 3.4 hours. The overture synphony engine runs with a 100% sustainable aviation fuel making supersonic flights more efficient than subsonic flights in terms of carbon emissions.

    • Satelite high speed internet communication More information, education,

    • Hyperloop is a technology has the potential to offering faster, more efficient, and sustainable logistics solutions. It can transport cargo at speeds of up to 700 mph, significantly reducing travel times, reducing downtime and incresing overall efficiency. some ot the challenges of this technology today are maintaining a vaccum seal in the tubes, propulsion, and levitation systems. Despite thise challenges, several companies, including HyperloopTT, Hardt B.V., and Transpod, are actively working on developing hyperloop technology for cargo transportation.

  • New processes: Making better products, faster and cheaper. (Innovation economic book here, tesla unbox here, example based tactile simulation and sim-to-real applications )

    • Battery manufacturing process Advancing dry-process battery technology that enable to dry print anodes and varios cathodes(e.g lithium iron phospate-LFP, nickel manganese cobalt-NMC, sodium ion etc) with no metal or liquid inside it, saving weight(23% from today standards), space in the packaging, costs(7% from today standards), more easely to recycling, more safe because no risk of thermal runaway, and 30% more energy density(from today standards 272 Wh/kg).

Sakuú revolutionary dry-electrode printing technology enables more advanced and sustainable battery manufacturing at scale, including elimination of toxic materials and solvents, reduction in cost complexity, and ability to work with a very range of both current and future active materials and battery chemistries. It’s enable battery producers and original equipment manufacturer(OEMs) to successfully meet this incredible surge in demand and do it more sustainably. That’s why we are the world’s first manufacturing platfform for printing battery electrodes?

— Mr. Robert Bagheri, founder and CEO of Sakuú

-   **Modular Assembly or Unboxed Manufacturing Process** A modular approach where vehicle sub-assenblies are manufactured independently and connected later. Giga Castings, replacing hundreds of smaller parts with large, single-piece castings simplifies assembly, reduces weight, and improves structural rigidity. Autonomous Production eliminating traditional conveyor belts and exploring autonomous vehicles that move through production areas. Flow chart would go from a linear process flow to a parallel process flow. 30% increase in assembly speed and a 44% increase in worker density requiring a smaller factory, 40% smaller factory footprint leading to lower capital expenditure and 50% reduction in cost of good sold for future vehicles.

  • Knowledge base, science, and data: (insert Lip-Bu Tan here, What are the limitation of scientists today?What are your questions? Insert the schematic process of the beagle sensors and processing here )

    • Chip manufacturing there a five generations waves happening at the same time including AI Machine learning, Industry 4.0, Autonomous driving, and cloud computing.

    • Data analysis U.S. have in BLS website which has 400 digitis nakes codes manufacturing sectors with every year like productivity growth, amount of labor, labor cost, capital investment. For example use this data to correlate wage levels to capex. Does Capex correlate to lagged productivity? What sectors doing the most? Today don’t also have any analysis of the causes for example why is our car production sector so weak?

    • Smart grids Planning of alternatives, When increasing of distributed generation(pch, biomass, pv, nuclear, hydro, coal, o&g, vehicles) that requires a network that absorbs, knows and receives this data and reacts positively at the same time thatt is has to give a return to those who are offering energy and to those who are investing. Concepts of automation, data science, great possibilities of energy transactions.

      The ability of EVs to both draw electricity from the grid for charging and supply electricity back to the grid through vehicle-to-grid(V2g) technology has a significant implications for the smart grid system. An example of a practical application of the system would be when a blizzard is forecast. Wheather forecast systems communicate with vehicles requestion maximum battery charging before the storm. This charge could be used during a period of power outages.

      Real world example: Denmark’s Edison Project with V2G feasibility with 10 bi-directional EVs, Californica V2G Pilot tested this technology with 50 EVs, Japan’s Chademo Association developed V2G-capable charging standards. Future outlook is increase adoption, advanced technologies(improvements in battery tech, power electronics and cybersecurity), and grid integration(decentralized renewable energy-based smart grid).

    • Nuclear Fusion Bring electricity to low income countries bringing significant improvement in standard of living.

    • Smart cars Communication between them and the system reducing accidents and casualties, saving millions of dollars and thousands of lives.

    • Smart tags Solving the problems of lines in the supermarket.

    • High speed trains Solving problems of wating times and necessity of security checks in the airports.

    • Smart robots machine-knitted pressure-sensitive low cost tactile skin that is scalable

    • Autonomous truck John Deer CES 2025, save time, reduce risks os crash through drive assistant. 20 years ago we were probably pushing 120 tons an hour, and today we’re mining 350/370 tons an hour. We run 24/7 we run like on a four shift basis the larg of the corry that there’s many new challenges safy, employment and training finding skilled labor is very challenging it to be able to run and see them as machine and be able operate it from my desk will eliminate the training, eliminate safety factors you want everybody to go home safe it’s going to increse productivity out of the mine and give me more time to be more creative of what we need to do in the future.

      Example fully autonomous ADT or Dusty manufacture in Devenport Iowa that machine leverages starts with hihg performance eletronics, designed and tested by John Deere for over 30 years to operate in Earth’s toughest environments the ruggedized component stack includes satellite internet advanced controls, starfire gps, 360 view cameras and sensors, and high performance GPU’s which enable us to deliver real autonomy into the and dirty world of construction.

    • Technical training Hands-on practical experience by using virtual reality and advanced training simulators to prepare the workforce for advanced manufacturing jobs (e.g Palette Skils, Advanced Industry Training by Weber State University)

  • Redefine customer values: Create new damand by delivering a previously unknown experience to consumers. They built powerful, cohesive business systems that could deliver more of this value than their competitors. They raised customer expectations beyond what their competitors could reach. According to Gary Cohn, increase in GDP growth could substantially reduce debt/GDP ratio, which could consequently improve investors’s long-term planning.

  • Process improvement: The best possible products at the lowest possible cost, in the most timely manner, on a stable long-term basis.

    • Intelligent management grid Electric vehicle charging management according to variables such as demand, time, and avaiability. The vehicle would make the decision based on data analysis with focus on system avaiability.

Action Plan

  • Semiconductors: Chips and Science Act, focus on increasing US competitiveness in the semiconductor industry, incentive for creating research and development centers in semiconductor techonologies.
  • Energy Technologies: Inflation Reduction Act, incentives for the production of electric vehicles, batteries electricity, and tax credits for companies investing in clean technologies.
  • Technology Demonstrations: Infraestructure Act, focus on infrastructure projects that promote innovation and sustainability, incentives for the adoption of clean and efficient techonologies in infrastructure project.
  • 3-3-3 plan: Involve cutting the budget deficit to 3% of GDP by 2028, boosting GDP growth to 3% through deregulation and other pro-growth policies, and increasing U.S. energy production to the equivalent of an additional 3 million barrels of oil per day.
  • Workforce Education:
  • Ambitious of industrialize: Build the factories, Supply chain, and vertically integrate those Supply chains together.

Illustration of processes guided by objectives and strategy

Challenges

  • Learning by doing: When companies or countries cease production something, it becomes difficult to redevelop that capability. This is due to the speciallized process knowledge required to manufacture high-value-added technology products. Here are some examples of historical process innovations and how they illustrate the importance of learning by doing.

    • The Watt Process for power generation from steam: James Watt’s improvements to the steam engine in the 18th centry weren’t solely based on theoretical knowledge. He continuously experimented and refined his designs through practical application, gradually increasing the engine’s efficiency and paving the way for the Industrial Revolution.

    • The Bessemer Process for Steel Production: In the 19th century, Henry Bessemer developed a process for mass-producing steel. This involved blowing air tinto molten iron to remove impurities. While the initial concept was based on scientific principles, the actual implementation required extensive trial and error to perfect. The continuous refinement of the Bessemer process through practical experience led to a significant reduction in steel prices, fueling advancements in construction, transportation, and other industries.

    • The Planar Process for Microelectronics: Developed in the late 1950s, the plannar process revolutionized the manufacturing of transistors and integrated circuits. This method involved building layers of semiconductor material on a flat substrate. While the scientific understanding of semiconductor was essential, mastering the intricate steps of the planar process required practical experience and continuous improvement through learning by doing. This innovation enabled the miniaturization fo electronics and paved the way for the digital innovation wave.

    • Fordism: Pioneered by Henry Ford in the early 20th century, revolutionized manufacturing through mass production, vertical integration, experimentation and innovation (e.g. introduced the moving assembly line, a radical innovation that significantly accelerated production)

Theses cases emphasize that the United States must regain its learning by doing advantage in advanced manufacturing to compete effectively in the global technology landscape.

Value Chain

Business Model and Cultural transformation

  • Acording Treacy and Wiersema (1993) to becoming an industry leader requires to choose a value discipline that takes into account its capabilities and culture as well as competitors’s strengths .

  • Redefined value, create new experiences and perception of benefit For example the value I got from this new electric vehicle.

  • Business systems that could deliver more of that value than competitors.

  • Raised customers’s expectations beyound the competition’s reach. Today’s customers have an expanded concept of value that includes convenience of purchase, after-sale service, dependability, and so on.

  • How to deliver superior customer value in line with one of the three value disciplines - operational excellence, customer intimacy or product leadership - in a world where populations are getting older Anjos (2024) , more urban, new tehnologies are emerging rapidly, economic activity in emerging markets is expanding rapidly all this without forgetting climate change ?

Illustration of value chain

Illustration of the idea of value discipline
  • What is relationship between small manufacturing and advanced manufacturing? (pag 24)
  • What about capital access gaps for small medium manufacturing (pag 26)
  • What about supply chain system with Allies and Partners (pag31,35)
  • What about training and talent (pag 36, 37,38, 39) and Earl Murman(MIT) with japanese training stats, Ebbinghaus forgetting curve, Jereme Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, Richard Skemp, Zontan Deans, Jean Piaget, Denis Littly, and Raj Shaunak.

References

Anjos, Marcelo Carvalho dos. 2024. Método PDCA e Ferramentas Da Qualidade. https://factorialmap.github.io/pdca/.
Atkinson. 2024. “The Babbage Forum: US Industrial Innovation Policy Dr Robert Atkinson,” April. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CnLOoIA6cUE.
Atkinson, Robert D. 2022. “The Hamilton Index: Assessing National Performance in the Competition for Advanced Industries.” https://itif.org/publications/2022/06/08/the-hamilton-index-assessing-national-performance-in-the-competition-for-advanced-industries/.
Bonvillian. 2024. “U.s. Industrial Innovation Policy, 2024 William b. Bonvillian MIT,” October. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KsutmF0EbmA.
DPLA, America. 1821. “Why New York?” https://dp.la/exhibitions/erie-canal/why-new-york?item=2214.
DW News. 2024. “Can Volkswagen Survive? | DW Business,” September. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBT1POIMpBw.
FRONTLINE PBS. 2024. “A Rust Belt City’s Economic Struggle | Left Behind America (Documentary) | FRONTLINE + ProPublica,” May. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m7-Te7JEqrQ.
Helwig, Brady, and Addis Goldman. 2024. “National Action Plan for United States Leadership in Advanced Manufacturing.” https://www.scsp.ai/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Advanced-Manufacturing-Action-Plan.pdf.
JustARandomChannel. 2019. “Exit Zero - an Industrial Family Story (Documentary),” September. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WyK5PBLPn0I.
Kaiman, Mike, Guillaume Vandenbroucke, and Scott Wolla. 2024. “Marginal Product of Labor and U.S. Westward Expansion.” https://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/page-one-economics/2024/sep/marginal-product-labor-us-westward-expansion.
Murman, Earll. 2008. “Ses. 1-4 New Balance® Plant Tour | Introduction to Lean Six Sigma Methods | Aeronautics and Astronautics.” https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/16-660j-introduction-to-lean-six-sigma-methods-january-iap-2012/resources/new-balanceae-plant-tour/.
Peter Santenello. 2024. “The Rust Belt - First Impressions 🇺🇸,” July. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qZDkXNgbwQ.
Treacy, Michael, and Fred Wiersema. 1993. “Customer Intimacy and Other Value Disciplines.” Harvard Business Review, January. https://hbr.org/1993/01/customer-intimacy-and-other-value-disciplines.